Vocabulary is an essential part of reading instruction because vocabulary allows students to easily communicate their ideas to others while understanding the writing and speaking of others. Without a strong vocabulary base, students will struggle with decoding, comprehension and overall understanding of written and spoken language while significantly hurting their own ability to communicate ideas clearly. The wider a student’s vocabulary knowledge, the stronger success that student will have in communicating with others. According to the National Reading Panel report from 2000, vocabulary is listed as one of the big 5 components of reading instruction, a fundamental element to any successful reading program.
In secondary reading instruction, vocabulary instruction is usually termed
academic vocabulary. According to Flynt and Brozo (2008), “academic vocabulary…referring to word knowledge that makes it possible for students to engage with, produce, and talk about texts that are valued in school,” (p. 500). This term is accurate in describing all vocabulary instruction, in my opinion, as it allows students a greater depth of communication. The importance of vocabulary instruction is easy to understand, but what can teachers do to improve vocabulary instruction?
First of all, teachers need to teach vocabulary in a direct and systematic way to make sure students are building on previous knowledge and being given the opportunity to learn the material. Secondly, teachers should be selective in which words they chose and should give students multiple encounters with important words. Teachers cannot possibly teach students every word, so they need to pick the words that are most important for comprehension of the text along with words they know the students will struggle with the most. These words should be taught in a variety of ways and over a period of time. The students should have multiple encounters with each word within and out of context so they can fully understand the word’s meaning and usage. Additionally, students should be given the opportunity to use the words in their own writing and communicating. (Flynt and Brozo, 2008).
In addition to direct instruction of particular words, students should be taught word origins, root words, prefixes, suffixes and syllables as part of their vocabulary instruction. If students know the history and word origins and can identify patterns within words, they will have a greater understanding of the meanings of those words. Students can also be taught root words along with prefixes and suffixes to deepen their understanding of language. The more parts of words students know and understand, the more words overall they will understand. Additionally, students will be able to create more words using this knowledge. Since the overall goal of reading is comprehension and the overall goal of writing is communication, students need to practice using these skills in reading and writing. (Joshi, 2008).
In my experience with my reading clinic student, I have spent a great deal of time teaching her root words, prefixes and suffixes along with word patterns and origins to strengthen her vocabulary. This was an area she identified as her greatest need, and I verified through testing. By using word sorts, online vocabulary games, learning words in context of reading and creating new words, my student has developed a much greater vocabulary than she initially had. She is also more confident when she approaches new words because she can break the word apart and put the parts back together to form meaning. Given more time, I would like to have worked more with multisyllabic words and Latin roots, in addition to the Greek roots we practiced.
Works Cited
Flynt, E.S. & Brozo, W.G. (2008). Developing academic language: got words? The Reading Teacher, 61(6), 500-502.
Johsi, R.M., Treiman, R., Carreker, S., & Moats, L. (2008). How words cast their spell: spelling is an integral part of learning the language, not a matter of memorization. American Educator, 6-41.
Wednesday, April 20, 2011
Tuesday, April 12, 2011
Is Fluency Really Necessary for Reading Success?
As I have been working with struggling readers, both my 7th graders and my reading clinic student, I have begun questioning whether fluency is really necessary for reading success and what kinds of strategies and activities are best for improving fluency. According to the National Reading Panel report from 2000, fluency is listed as one of the five critical components of any reading program. Since this report was published, research on the topic of fluency has shot through the roof and fluency has gained prestige as an important research component. However, is fluency really necessary to reading success? Additionally, if fluency is important to helping struggling readers, what strategies and activities show significant gains in fluency, and how are those gains measured?
First of all, what is fluency? According to Hicks (2010), “reading fluency is defined as ‘the ability of readers to read quickly, effortlessly, and efficiently with good, meaningful expression’” (p. 319). Fluency can be broken down into three important components: speed, accuracy and expression. In reality, fluency is a combination of these three components. Despite this observation, many schools, teachers and even some researchers still only use the reading rate as a measure of fluency. What are we teaching students if we only test how quickly they can read a text? We are teaching them that reading fast equates to reading well. However, this is not the case. Good readers read at a decent speed, but they read words correctly and change their speed, intonation and prosody as the text calls for it. Measures for reading fluency need to include all three components in an organized formula to truly test students’ fluency.
If reading fluency is not being tested correctly in schools, why is it even important to reading success? Well, according to Hicks (2010), “when reading is not fluent, students need to devote a significant portion of their cognitive effort to decoding, leaving little cognitive capacity for comprehension” (p. 320). The ultimate goal of reading is comprehension and when students read slowly, have to decode a great deal of words or don’t understand the proper expression to be used, they cannot completely comprehend what they are reading. All of these components lead to good comprehension of text. Good readers know how to use expression, speed and accuracy to their advantage. According to Rasinski, et al. (2005), high school students’ “lack of reading fluency appeared to be the area of greatest impairment in reading,” (p. 22). If we want students to be better readers and comprehenders, we have to teach them to read fluently. To further emphasize why reading fluency is an important component of reading Morris (2011) states that “students need to read text with sufficient speed and rhythm if they are to (a) enjoy reading, (b) concentrate on meaning, and (c) complete reading assignments in a reasonable amount of time,” (p. 331). Obviously, reading fluency is important to reading success, especially for struggling readers.
It has been established that reading fluency is, in fact, a key component to the success of struggling readers, but what can be done to help improve their reading fluency? First of all, teachers can model reading fluently for students every chance they get. Students are not going to learn by osmosis and must have direct instruction on how to read fluently in order to be successful. Teachers can read texts for students while modeling how they change speed and expression as they read. If the teacher models this technique and talks the students through it, they will learn that they should be doing this as well. Then the teacher can give the students time to actually practice what they have learned on what they are currently reading.
Secondly, teachers can use readers’ theatre to help students understand the importance of changing their tone, intonation and prosody while they read. Students get the opportunity to act out the characters in a text and they get to take on the role of what they are reading. As they are acting out what they are reading and using various expressions, their comprehension deepens. Once students place themselves in the text in a meaningful way, they have the opportunity to explore the text in a new way. Finally, teachers can use repeated readings of texts that are on the students’ individual instructional level. The teacher should not use the same texts for every student, but each students’ individual needs and reading levels should be taken into account and accommodated for in regards to reading fluency.
Ultimately, reading fluency is important to reading success, especially for struggling students. In regards to my reading clinic student, repeated readings of texts that are on her instructional level have helped give her the confidence to read more quickly and with better accuracy. Additionally, spelling instruction has improved her decoding skills which also results in higher accuracy rates. For expression, I have used fun fable-like stories that have a great deal of dialogue with them. This forces the student to show a variety of expressions, intonations and tones as she reads, teaching her that not every text can be read in the same way. These activities and strategies can easily transfer to the classroom and large group settings to help all students become successful readers. Reading fluency is critical to building successful readers, so teachers should embrace this skill in the classroom, and with more than just a stopwatch.
Works Cited
Hicks, C.P. (2009). A lesson on reading fluency learned from the tortoise and the hare. The Reading Teacher, 63(4), 319-323.
Morris, D. & Gaffney, M. (2011). Building reading fluency in a learning-disabled middle school reader. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 5(45), 331-341.
Rasinski, T.V., Padak, N.D., McKeon, C.A., Wilfong, L.G., Friedauer, J.A. & Heim, P.
(2005). Is reading fluency a key for successful high school reading? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 49(1), 22-27.
First of all, what is fluency? According to Hicks (2010), “reading fluency is defined as ‘the ability of readers to read quickly, effortlessly, and efficiently with good, meaningful expression’” (p. 319). Fluency can be broken down into three important components: speed, accuracy and expression. In reality, fluency is a combination of these three components. Despite this observation, many schools, teachers and even some researchers still only use the reading rate as a measure of fluency. What are we teaching students if we only test how quickly they can read a text? We are teaching them that reading fast equates to reading well. However, this is not the case. Good readers read at a decent speed, but they read words correctly and change their speed, intonation and prosody as the text calls for it. Measures for reading fluency need to include all three components in an organized formula to truly test students’ fluency.
If reading fluency is not being tested correctly in schools, why is it even important to reading success? Well, according to Hicks (2010), “when reading is not fluent, students need to devote a significant portion of their cognitive effort to decoding, leaving little cognitive capacity for comprehension” (p. 320). The ultimate goal of reading is comprehension and when students read slowly, have to decode a great deal of words or don’t understand the proper expression to be used, they cannot completely comprehend what they are reading. All of these components lead to good comprehension of text. Good readers know how to use expression, speed and accuracy to their advantage. According to Rasinski, et al. (2005), high school students’ “lack of reading fluency appeared to be the area of greatest impairment in reading,” (p. 22). If we want students to be better readers and comprehenders, we have to teach them to read fluently. To further emphasize why reading fluency is an important component of reading Morris (2011) states that “students need to read text with sufficient speed and rhythm if they are to (a) enjoy reading, (b) concentrate on meaning, and (c) complete reading assignments in a reasonable amount of time,” (p. 331). Obviously, reading fluency is important to reading success, especially for struggling readers.
It has been established that reading fluency is, in fact, a key component to the success of struggling readers, but what can be done to help improve their reading fluency? First of all, teachers can model reading fluently for students every chance they get. Students are not going to learn by osmosis and must have direct instruction on how to read fluently in order to be successful. Teachers can read texts for students while modeling how they change speed and expression as they read. If the teacher models this technique and talks the students through it, they will learn that they should be doing this as well. Then the teacher can give the students time to actually practice what they have learned on what they are currently reading.
Secondly, teachers can use readers’ theatre to help students understand the importance of changing their tone, intonation and prosody while they read. Students get the opportunity to act out the characters in a text and they get to take on the role of what they are reading. As they are acting out what they are reading and using various expressions, their comprehension deepens. Once students place themselves in the text in a meaningful way, they have the opportunity to explore the text in a new way. Finally, teachers can use repeated readings of texts that are on the students’ individual instructional level. The teacher should not use the same texts for every student, but each students’ individual needs and reading levels should be taken into account and accommodated for in regards to reading fluency.
Ultimately, reading fluency is important to reading success, especially for struggling students. In regards to my reading clinic student, repeated readings of texts that are on her instructional level have helped give her the confidence to read more quickly and with better accuracy. Additionally, spelling instruction has improved her decoding skills which also results in higher accuracy rates. For expression, I have used fun fable-like stories that have a great deal of dialogue with them. This forces the student to show a variety of expressions, intonations and tones as she reads, teaching her that not every text can be read in the same way. These activities and strategies can easily transfer to the classroom and large group settings to help all students become successful readers. Reading fluency is critical to building successful readers, so teachers should embrace this skill in the classroom, and with more than just a stopwatch.
Works Cited
Hicks, C.P. (2009). A lesson on reading fluency learned from the tortoise and the hare. The Reading Teacher, 63(4), 319-323.
Morris, D. & Gaffney, M. (2011). Building reading fluency in a learning-disabled middle school reader. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 5(45), 331-341.
Rasinski, T.V., Padak, N.D., McKeon, C.A., Wilfong, L.G., Friedauer, J.A. & Heim, P.
(2005). Is reading fluency a key for successful high school reading? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 49(1), 22-27.
Saturday, April 9, 2011
Dyslexia
Lately, I have become more interested in dyslexia for a variety of reasons. I have had several classes about the topic but have not fully understood it or the effects it has on students. At my current school, an uncommonly high number of students are labeled as dyslexic and receive accommodations for such; however, I do not believe that all of the students are, in fact, dyslexic. Many of the diagnosis are based on teacher observations instead of through formal testing. Additionally, my tutoring student, Keandria, shows signs of dyslexia and her aunt mentioned in the parent interview that she was labeled as such. My tutoring student has extremely poor decoding skills and it takes her quite a bit of time to finish reading a text; however, she remembers almost everything she reads and has astounding listening comprehension skills as well.
First of all, dyslexia needs to be adequately defined. Through my research, I have found many definitions of dyslexia. According to Tunmer & Greaney (2010), dyslexia is a “persistent literacy learning difficulty, especially…in word recognition, spelling, and phonological recoding, where phonological recoding is the ability to translate letters and letter patterns into phonological forms” (p. 231). This indicates that dyslexia is primarily a disability with decoding. In my Developmental Reading course at A&M, dyslexia was defined as a mismatch between reading ability and intellectual ability. Finally, Duff & Clarke (2010) define dyslexia as being “characterized by primary difficulties with decoding” (p. 3). Overall, dyslexia can, therefore, be classified as a reading disability affecting decoding. While this is a setback as decoding is a primary component of reading, my observations have shown that these students have excellent comprehension skills, especially in listening comprehension. My main struggle, with my own students as well as my tutoring student, has been how to best help improve the decoding skills so that these students can be more efficient and effective readers.
Students with dyslexia need specialized instruction in phonological awareness and phonics and these two components should drive the instruction of the student. In a study by Duff & Clarke (2010), students were shown to have the most significant improvements (d=.83) when working in “groups of 2-7 students, as compared to one-on-one (d=.45) or whole class basis (d=.35)” (p. 4). This information was not new to me, as a I know small group instruction is valuable; however, I did not realize that it is almost twice as helpful in phonological awareness and phonics instruction of children with dyslexia than one-on-one instruction. For my tutoring student, in which the environment is one-on-one, I can make the tutoring more effective by making the phonological awareness instruction and phonics instruction a group of two by using myself. While I already use a variety of techniques to improve my student’s decoding (like word sorts, online games, and Inspiration activities), I can include myself in the activities to form a small group to better assist my students. We will also begin playing competitive games against each other.
LaBerge & Samuels (1974) stated that students with dyslexia need to form “automaticity of the lower level components (consonants, vowels, syllables, grammatical endings, meaningful parts, and the spelling units that represent them) [to allow] attention to be allocated to the acquisition of higher level components” (p. 58). While this is exactly what students with dyslexia need most, in the middle grades and high school, the focus is on comprehension, and oftentimes, simple decoding skills instruction is abandoned. According to a study by Calhoon, Sandow & Hunter (2010), students in middle grades benefitted from direct instruction in phonological awareness, phonics and spelling. These skills then translated to an increase in comprehension skills. This study was conducted to see if explicit instruction in these skills would benefit students with reading disabilities, like dyslexia, and the results showed such. Many reading programs are not focused for middle grades, but this study indicates that focusing on the lower-level skills with struggling readers could have significant results not only in those skills but comprehension skills as well.
The implications of the research I found on dyslexia instruction for older students will help guide my tutoring with my high school student. It has been reiterated that she needs explicit instruction in phonological awareness, phonics and spelling to improve her decoding skills while adding to her already great comprehension skills. By combining technology and writing skills with word sorts, sight words and other simple decoding skills, she can increase her reading ability and show growth by at least one grade level. For my students, I can place my struggling readers in small groups and give explicit phonological awareness and phonics instruction to help raise their reading abilities.
Works Cited
Calhoon, M.B., Sandow, A. & Hunter, C.V. (2010). Reorganizing the instructional reading components: could there be a better way to design remedial reading programs to maximize middle school students with reading disabilities’ response to treatment? Ann. of Dyslexia, 60, 57-85.
Duff, F.J. & Clarke, P.J. (2010). Practitioner review: reading disorders: what are the effective interventions and how should they be implemented and evaluated? The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 52(1), 3-12.
LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6(2), 293–323.
Tunmer, W. & Greaney, K. (2010). Defining dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(3), 229-243.
First of all, dyslexia needs to be adequately defined. Through my research, I have found many definitions of dyslexia. According to Tunmer & Greaney (2010), dyslexia is a “persistent literacy learning difficulty, especially…in word recognition, spelling, and phonological recoding, where phonological recoding is the ability to translate letters and letter patterns into phonological forms” (p. 231). This indicates that dyslexia is primarily a disability with decoding. In my Developmental Reading course at A&M, dyslexia was defined as a mismatch between reading ability and intellectual ability. Finally, Duff & Clarke (2010) define dyslexia as being “characterized by primary difficulties with decoding” (p. 3). Overall, dyslexia can, therefore, be classified as a reading disability affecting decoding. While this is a setback as decoding is a primary component of reading, my observations have shown that these students have excellent comprehension skills, especially in listening comprehension. My main struggle, with my own students as well as my tutoring student, has been how to best help improve the decoding skills so that these students can be more efficient and effective readers.
Students with dyslexia need specialized instruction in phonological awareness and phonics and these two components should drive the instruction of the student. In a study by Duff & Clarke (2010), students were shown to have the most significant improvements (d=.83) when working in “groups of 2-7 students, as compared to one-on-one (d=.45) or whole class basis (d=.35)” (p. 4). This information was not new to me, as a I know small group instruction is valuable; however, I did not realize that it is almost twice as helpful in phonological awareness and phonics instruction of children with dyslexia than one-on-one instruction. For my tutoring student, in which the environment is one-on-one, I can make the tutoring more effective by making the phonological awareness instruction and phonics instruction a group of two by using myself. While I already use a variety of techniques to improve my student’s decoding (like word sorts, online games, and Inspiration activities), I can include myself in the activities to form a small group to better assist my students. We will also begin playing competitive games against each other.
LaBerge & Samuels (1974) stated that students with dyslexia need to form “automaticity of the lower level components (consonants, vowels, syllables, grammatical endings, meaningful parts, and the spelling units that represent them) [to allow] attention to be allocated to the acquisition of higher level components” (p. 58). While this is exactly what students with dyslexia need most, in the middle grades and high school, the focus is on comprehension, and oftentimes, simple decoding skills instruction is abandoned. According to a study by Calhoon, Sandow & Hunter (2010), students in middle grades benefitted from direct instruction in phonological awareness, phonics and spelling. These skills then translated to an increase in comprehension skills. This study was conducted to see if explicit instruction in these skills would benefit students with reading disabilities, like dyslexia, and the results showed such. Many reading programs are not focused for middle grades, but this study indicates that focusing on the lower-level skills with struggling readers could have significant results not only in those skills but comprehension skills as well.
The implications of the research I found on dyslexia instruction for older students will help guide my tutoring with my high school student. It has been reiterated that she needs explicit instruction in phonological awareness, phonics and spelling to improve her decoding skills while adding to her already great comprehension skills. By combining technology and writing skills with word sorts, sight words and other simple decoding skills, she can increase her reading ability and show growth by at least one grade level. For my students, I can place my struggling readers in small groups and give explicit phonological awareness and phonics instruction to help raise their reading abilities.
Works Cited
Calhoon, M.B., Sandow, A. & Hunter, C.V. (2010). Reorganizing the instructional reading components: could there be a better way to design remedial reading programs to maximize middle school students with reading disabilities’ response to treatment? Ann. of Dyslexia, 60, 57-85.
Duff, F.J. & Clarke, P.J. (2010). Practitioner review: reading disorders: what are the effective interventions and how should they be implemented and evaluated? The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 52(1), 3-12.
LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6(2), 293–323.
Tunmer, W. & Greaney, K. (2010). Defining dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(3), 229-243.
Wednesday, April 6, 2011
Motivation in Writing Instruction
As I continue tutoring my reading clinic student and have focused on writing instruction for most of the school year with my 7th graders, I wonder what I can do to increase motivation for writing. I have found that with both groups of students, writing is something they are resistant to and find little engagement in. For me, it is easy to find ways to motivate the students extrinsically (via stickers, rewards, praise, free computer time, etc.), but I struggle to motivate them intrinsically, which I know will gain greater growth.
Writing is a complex literacy activity that requires students to think cognitively, problem-solve and synthesize what they know simultaneously. Without completing these activities in unison, students cannot efficiently communicate their ideas, which is the goal of writing. Motivating students to be interested and engaged in an activity like this is complex as well and requires careful thought by the teacher. According to Lam and Law (2007), “six components of instructional contexts that are most relevant to students’ motivation: challenge, real-life significance, curiosity, autonomy, recognition and evaluation,” (p. 146), which shows that many factors are included in motivating students to write. Overall, students must feel the writing is important to their lives, they must have some autonomy and choice when deciding what to write and they must feel like their writing will go beyond the classroom and a grade by the teacher. If students do not feel like these factors are plausible, they will not be effective or efficient writers.
First of all, student must feel that an assignment is challenging for them to be motivated to complete it. If an assignment is too easy, students will not feel that it is valuable; however, if an assignment is too difficult, students will shut down to avoid failing. Additionally, challenging assignments help build students’ self-efficacy by encouraging effort as well as success. According to Lam and Law (2007), “writers with high self-efficacy usually have lower anxiety, greater persistence, and higher toleration for frustration in writing tasks,” (p. 147) which can be created through writing assignments that are valuable and meaningful to students.
Secondly, students must feel the writing is tied to their real life experiences and has a purpose greater than just earning a grade from a teacher. Students need to have answers to two important questions to ensure that they feel an assignment is important to their lives: (1) “Why do I have to write this?” and (2) “What is the value of writing this?” According to Lam and Law (2007), “students are likely to become motivated if they know the answers to these questions,” (p. 147). More importantly, students can make connections between what they are learning in class and what they know outside of class, which is a valuable skill they need to acquire and be able to use. The information teachers give students means little if the students cannot find connections between it and what they experience on a daily basis.
The third important factor in motivating students is to access and engage their curiosity in what they are writing about. Students need to feel that they are learning something from the writing task at hand, and they need to develop a sense of curiosity in learning more about the task while they are completing it. This curiosity most easily stems from students being able to use problem-solving strategies while they are writing. They must not feel that they are simply writing to write but that they are writing to gain knowledge or solve a problem they see. In a meta-analysis study by Hillocks (1984), the researchers cited that “instruction emphasizing inquiry had a strong positive effect on the quality of students’ writing.” Further demonstrating that students need opportunities for growth through exploration and choice.
In addition to these factors, students need some autonomy in choosing what they will write and how the information will be presented. The need for autonomy is one of the fundamental and universal needs of people. Teacher should be aware of this fact and should help guide students’ to write about their interests. Autonomy can easily be coupled with curiosity when teachers give students option for writing rather than one set criteria. The teacher can give students choices in how they write, what format they choose to use and what they choose to write about. All of these choices help build intrinsic motivation for the students, while increasing their autonomy of the assignment.
Recognition is understanding success and failure. Research has shown that effort is more important than a students’ intelligence level. Students who are consistently praised on effort rather than intelligence will continue to perform better and be more motivated. Muller and Dweck (1998) cited this finding in their study. They said “children who were praised for effort were more motivated than were children who were praised for intelligence.” This can be brought back to the recognition of what students see as a success and failure as well as what they view as being in their control. Students have complete control over their effort, but cannot necessarily evaluate their intelligence level.
Finally, evaluation and feedback is crucial to student writing motivation and success. Students respond better when they are given feedback on specific things they can improve on rather than just given a letter grade. Students also are more motivated when they are compared to past performance of themselves rather than being compared to their peers. Teachers can assist students by helping them form their own writing goals and helping them to achieve these goals over time. Each time the student is evaluated, their learning goals should be evaluated as well to make sure the student is on target.
Overall, motivation in writing can be easily achieved when students feel they are writing for a purpose and their writing is taken beyond the classroom. In my experiences as a teacher, using blogging, Twitter, Facebook and other public forums for discussions and student writing helps motivate the students. First of all, the students take grammar, spelling and punctuation seriously because they do not want to look embarrassed online. Secondly, students feel their writing has a purpose because it is being evaluated by their peers as well as people beyond the classroom, and not just the teacher. In tutoring, I have used my students’ interests, like music, dance and cosmetology, to influence her writing. We write about topics that interest her, which results in a great quantity and quality of writing.
Works Cited
Hillocks, G. (1984). What works in teaching composition: A meta-analysis of experimental treatment studies. American Journal of Education, 135-170.
Lam, S. & Law, Y. (2007). The Roles of Instructional Practices and Motivation in Writing Performance. The Journal of Experimental Education, 145-164.
Muller, C.M. & Dweck, C.S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33-52.
Writing is a complex literacy activity that requires students to think cognitively, problem-solve and synthesize what they know simultaneously. Without completing these activities in unison, students cannot efficiently communicate their ideas, which is the goal of writing. Motivating students to be interested and engaged in an activity like this is complex as well and requires careful thought by the teacher. According to Lam and Law (2007), “six components of instructional contexts that are most relevant to students’ motivation: challenge, real-life significance, curiosity, autonomy, recognition and evaluation,” (p. 146), which shows that many factors are included in motivating students to write. Overall, students must feel the writing is important to their lives, they must have some autonomy and choice when deciding what to write and they must feel like their writing will go beyond the classroom and a grade by the teacher. If students do not feel like these factors are plausible, they will not be effective or efficient writers.
First of all, student must feel that an assignment is challenging for them to be motivated to complete it. If an assignment is too easy, students will not feel that it is valuable; however, if an assignment is too difficult, students will shut down to avoid failing. Additionally, challenging assignments help build students’ self-efficacy by encouraging effort as well as success. According to Lam and Law (2007), “writers with high self-efficacy usually have lower anxiety, greater persistence, and higher toleration for frustration in writing tasks,” (p. 147) which can be created through writing assignments that are valuable and meaningful to students.
Secondly, students must feel the writing is tied to their real life experiences and has a purpose greater than just earning a grade from a teacher. Students need to have answers to two important questions to ensure that they feel an assignment is important to their lives: (1) “Why do I have to write this?” and (2) “What is the value of writing this?” According to Lam and Law (2007), “students are likely to become motivated if they know the answers to these questions,” (p. 147). More importantly, students can make connections between what they are learning in class and what they know outside of class, which is a valuable skill they need to acquire and be able to use. The information teachers give students means little if the students cannot find connections between it and what they experience on a daily basis.
The third important factor in motivating students is to access and engage their curiosity in what they are writing about. Students need to feel that they are learning something from the writing task at hand, and they need to develop a sense of curiosity in learning more about the task while they are completing it. This curiosity most easily stems from students being able to use problem-solving strategies while they are writing. They must not feel that they are simply writing to write but that they are writing to gain knowledge or solve a problem they see. In a meta-analysis study by Hillocks (1984), the researchers cited that “instruction emphasizing inquiry had a strong positive effect on the quality of students’ writing.” Further demonstrating that students need opportunities for growth through exploration and choice.
In addition to these factors, students need some autonomy in choosing what they will write and how the information will be presented. The need for autonomy is one of the fundamental and universal needs of people. Teacher should be aware of this fact and should help guide students’ to write about their interests. Autonomy can easily be coupled with curiosity when teachers give students option for writing rather than one set criteria. The teacher can give students choices in how they write, what format they choose to use and what they choose to write about. All of these choices help build intrinsic motivation for the students, while increasing their autonomy of the assignment.
Recognition is understanding success and failure. Research has shown that effort is more important than a students’ intelligence level. Students who are consistently praised on effort rather than intelligence will continue to perform better and be more motivated. Muller and Dweck (1998) cited this finding in their study. They said “children who were praised for effort were more motivated than were children who were praised for intelligence.” This can be brought back to the recognition of what students see as a success and failure as well as what they view as being in their control. Students have complete control over their effort, but cannot necessarily evaluate their intelligence level.
Finally, evaluation and feedback is crucial to student writing motivation and success. Students respond better when they are given feedback on specific things they can improve on rather than just given a letter grade. Students also are more motivated when they are compared to past performance of themselves rather than being compared to their peers. Teachers can assist students by helping them form their own writing goals and helping them to achieve these goals over time. Each time the student is evaluated, their learning goals should be evaluated as well to make sure the student is on target.
Overall, motivation in writing can be easily achieved when students feel they are writing for a purpose and their writing is taken beyond the classroom. In my experiences as a teacher, using blogging, Twitter, Facebook and other public forums for discussions and student writing helps motivate the students. First of all, the students take grammar, spelling and punctuation seriously because they do not want to look embarrassed online. Secondly, students feel their writing has a purpose because it is being evaluated by their peers as well as people beyond the classroom, and not just the teacher. In tutoring, I have used my students’ interests, like music, dance and cosmetology, to influence her writing. We write about topics that interest her, which results in a great quantity and quality of writing.
Works Cited
Hillocks, G. (1984). What works in teaching composition: A meta-analysis of experimental treatment studies. American Journal of Education, 135-170.
Lam, S. & Law, Y. (2007). The Roles of Instructional Practices and Motivation in Writing Performance. The Journal of Experimental Education, 145-164.
Muller, C.M. & Dweck, C.S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33-52.
Tuesday, April 5, 2011
Teaching Phonics at the Secondary Level
Typically, phonics has been viewed as a primary grades and elementary level skill. However, with the increasing number of adolescents who struggle with decoding, it is important to focus on and implement basic phonics instruction into reading instruction at the secondary level. Phonics includes the understanding of letter-sound correspondence as well as the sounds those letters make up. It also includes spelling instruction and knowledge of morphemes and word origins. All of these skills are critical components to reading and comprehension and have been proven to increase comprehension of struggling readers when taught explicitly, directly and systematically.
My reading clinic student and the seventh graders I teach, struggle with decoding which then hinders their comprehension. These students are in need of phonics instruction at the secondary level; however, there are challenges associated with this kind of instruction. First of all, it is not part of most reading programs at the secondary level to include basic phonics instruction in vowel sounds, consonant blends and other basic decoding skills. Additionally, students at this level may become offended or even resistant to instruction that they feel is “too babyish” for them. Because of these reasons, phonics instruction to secondary students must be handled with care and approached in innovative and new ways.
First of all, phonics instruction is necessary and proves growth in secondary learners. According to a study conducted by Graff, Bosman, Hasselman & Verhoeven (2009), “systematic-phonics instruction can be easily implemented…in a meaningful and attractive context,” (p. 332). The study goes on to mention that this “systematic-phonics instruction” showed greater growth than unsystematic-phonics instruction. These students showed a better appreciation for and more independence with reading.
Secondly, while it is important for phonics instruction to be systematic, it is equally important at the secondary level for it to be attractive and engaging for students. The key component is to understand that many of these students will understand that phonics is typically a skill learned in elementary school, so teachers should be aware of the effect this knowledge could have on the students. Teachers can help students be more comfortable learning these skills by integrating technology into the lessons. With my tutoring student, we have done word sorts on the computer using Inspiration software as well as online gaming sites. The student has reported liking the games and said learning the skills was fun this way. Since adolescents are highly technology oriented, this is a great way to get them engaged.
While phonics instruction at the secondary level is unconventional, in some cases, it is mandatory to student success. Phonics should not be overlooked as an integral part of reading decoding and comprehension success, even for older learners. These learners can gain some valuable skills just as easily as beginning readers from structured, direct phonics instruction. The only difference is that teachers may need to be a little more innovative in how they present the information to older learners.
Works Cited
Graaf, S., Bosman, A.M.T., Hasselman, F. & Verhoeven, L. (2009). Benefits of systematic phonics instruction. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13, 318-333.
Kamps, D.M. & Greenwood, C.R. (2005). Formulating secondary-level reading interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 500-509.
My reading clinic student and the seventh graders I teach, struggle with decoding which then hinders their comprehension. These students are in need of phonics instruction at the secondary level; however, there are challenges associated with this kind of instruction. First of all, it is not part of most reading programs at the secondary level to include basic phonics instruction in vowel sounds, consonant blends and other basic decoding skills. Additionally, students at this level may become offended or even resistant to instruction that they feel is “too babyish” for them. Because of these reasons, phonics instruction to secondary students must be handled with care and approached in innovative and new ways.
First of all, phonics instruction is necessary and proves growth in secondary learners. According to a study conducted by Graff, Bosman, Hasselman & Verhoeven (2009), “systematic-phonics instruction can be easily implemented…in a meaningful and attractive context,” (p. 332). The study goes on to mention that this “systematic-phonics instruction” showed greater growth than unsystematic-phonics instruction. These students showed a better appreciation for and more independence with reading.
Secondly, while it is important for phonics instruction to be systematic, it is equally important at the secondary level for it to be attractive and engaging for students. The key component is to understand that many of these students will understand that phonics is typically a skill learned in elementary school, so teachers should be aware of the effect this knowledge could have on the students. Teachers can help students be more comfortable learning these skills by integrating technology into the lessons. With my tutoring student, we have done word sorts on the computer using Inspiration software as well as online gaming sites. The student has reported liking the games and said learning the skills was fun this way. Since adolescents are highly technology oriented, this is a great way to get them engaged.
While phonics instruction at the secondary level is unconventional, in some cases, it is mandatory to student success. Phonics should not be overlooked as an integral part of reading decoding and comprehension success, even for older learners. These learners can gain some valuable skills just as easily as beginning readers from structured, direct phonics instruction. The only difference is that teachers may need to be a little more innovative in how they present the information to older learners.
Works Cited
Graaf, S., Bosman, A.M.T., Hasselman, F. & Verhoeven, L. (2009). Benefits of systematic phonics instruction. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13, 318-333.
Kamps, D.M. & Greenwood, C.R. (2005). Formulating secondary-level reading interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 500-509.
The Benefits of Using Cell Phones in Schools
Cell phones continue to grow in number across the United States and world. A world-wide phenomenon of owning and using a cell phone has now even permeated itself into the public education system. Today, almost all students in the classroom will have a cell phone and will be able to use it successfully. Moreover, these cell phones will have the capacity to do more than even the computers in the classroom are capable of doing. Cell phones today can send instant messages, receive and send calls, update web pages and even find directions to a location via satellite. While many of these tasks can also be done on the computer, a cell phone is smaller, easier to use and does not require the time to set up and program like a computer does. Cell phones today can be used in the classroom and will serve a multitude of benefits that computers and teachers alone cannot provide to students. Cell phones are cheaper than computers, especially since many students can provide their own cell phone. They are also easier to set up and use and can be obtained more quickly than a computer. Additionally, cell phones are ready whenever and are more transportable than computers. Cell phones can be used anywhere at any time and can get speedy information to students. With all of these benefits, it is a wonder that many schools have attempted to ban cell phones from use during the school day. Cell phones can be used and integrated in the classroom to create a more holistic, inclusive and engaging learning environment.
History
Twenty or even ten years ago, cell phone usage in the classroom would not have even been a topic of debate or consideration. Computers were the new design in technology and were not even predominately used in classrooms. Over the last twenty years, it has become almost necessary for students to have access to a computer to complete assignments and engage in their learning from class. This trend continued to progress with the invention and adoption of the internet in schools. Students today are more likely to get their research and foundational information from a computer and the internet than from a library. However, computers themselves are becoming less and less popular among school-aged students as cell phones become more complicated in their technological capacities. Cell phones today can do as much and even more, in some cases, than the home or school computer can. More importantly, cell phones are more popular among school-aged students than computers. According to a 2008 study by O. Khariff of BusinessWeek Online, 71% of teenagers in America own a cell phone while only 59% own a computer (p. 1). This information was further verified in a survey by A. Lenhart (2009) which stated that 71% of teens ages 12-17 own a cell phone (p. 6). Cell phones are also becoming more prevalent in elementary and middle schools. According to a 2005 study by The Communicator, “over 200,000 students aged 5 to 9 carry cell phones while over seven million aged 10 to 14 have a cell phone” (p. 52). Why then would teacher be reluctant to use cell phones in their classroom when research alone shows that students are more likely to have a cell phone than a computer? Students can use the cell phones they have to complete research and find answers to questions they have about an assignment.
Of added importance to teachers and school officials is the fact that many parents also own cell phones. In a survey by A. Lenhart (2009), 88% of parents were found to own cell phones (p. 18). School administrators know that parents play a crucial role in their child’s education. However, with many parents, it is difficult to make contacts with the schools. Cell phones can help more parents get connected to their child’s school. Updates about the student can be sent to the parents’ cell phone. Additionally, cell phones can be used as another way of keeping contact with the parents. Teachers can send mass text messages letting parents know about upcoming deadlines or assignments. Cell phones could greatly improve the contact teachers and school administrators have with parents.
In addition to cell phones becoming more common with students than computers, cell phones are gaining encouragement in schools. While it is true that many schools are banning cell phone use during the school day, others are encouraging or even requiring students to use their phones during school. According to A.F. Thurnau (2009), U.S. Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, has even stated that he believes, “that kindergarten through grade 12 education needs to integrate cell phones into its classrooms,” (p. 28). As mentioned before, twenty or so years ago, this would not have even crossed the consciousness of many people. However, as technology continues to progress, the educational system should begin considering implementing new technologies as well. These technologies can be used to create fun, engaging and more interactive learning environments while teaching students how to use these fundamental tools. Many years ago, students did not need to know how to use a cell phone, computer, printer or the internet to get a good job upon completing high school or college. Today, these skills are a must. If the education system truly wants to graduate successful and capable students, these technologies should be mandatory in the classroom. Schools can begin by implementing and using cell phones more frequently during lessons.
Current Research
Cell phones have been tolerated, for the most part, in schools as long as they are out of sight and turned off for the duration of the school day. Some schools even go as far as punishing students for using them in school. However, a new wave of teachers is coming into education. A wave of teacher who have ideas on how these obnoxious tools can be used to help learning. According to a recent article by T. Freedman (2006), “almost all cell phones now have note-taking and calendar features, so there is no excuse for students forgetting their homework assignments,” (p. 1). He goes on to mention that cell phones also have calculators and SMS features that can be used in math classes and to contact teachers and parents. The King Edward VII School in England uses cell phones to address the topic of truancy. The school uses the text messaging system of cell phones to send parents a text when their student is absent. The system keeps sending the message until parents respond (p. 1). Features like these are in their infancy, but as cell phone technology improves, the capabilities of cell phones for education will improve as well.
Additionally, a 2006 report by the Association for Career and Technical Education, cited that “for a school with a limited number of digital cameras and limited Internet access in classrooms, cell phones can help fill in the gaps, serving almost as mobile computers,” (p. 3). Schools like this one exist all over the United States and pose real problems for local communities trying to give their students the best education possible. If there are too few computers or unreliable Internet access, the students will not have the same educational opportunities as students going to richer districts. However, if the students come to class with a cell phone, that cell phone can be used to do many of the same tasks that the computer or Internet was doing, only faster and with less hassle. Schools will be providing students with a better and more complete education, while teaching them how to use modern technology that will be necessary for them to use in the workforce, and the school will save money. Cell phones seem to be the answer to many schools’ budget problems.
In a 2007 newspaper article about the banning of cell phones in New York City schools, P. Thompson states, “Teachers have argued that cell phones only distract the class, making it difficult for them to teach. Some students agree,” (p. 3). While some teachers, and even some students, argue that cell phones are a major distraction in the classroom, there is clear evidence to prove otherwise. Many of these teachers and students are trying to fight the progression of cell phones. It is proven that teachers who try to combat and fight cell phones have more difficulty with them. However, teachers who embrace that the majority of their students have cell phones and will want to use them, incorporate cell phones into the instruction. These teachers do not find cell phones distracting, but find them engaging to students.
Conclusion
According to a 2006 report by the Association for Career and Technical Education, “cell phones are not going away anytime soon, and when they do, it will be because they have been replaced by some new technology with its own benefits and drawbacks,” (p. 3). This statement sums up the fact that teachers, administrators and school officials should promote cell phone usage in schools. Instead of trying to fight the overwhelming number of students that own cell phones, these school officials should be teaching students how to properly use their cell phones while implementing them into instruction to make lessons more engaging and meaningful for all students. Cell phones pose solutions to budget cuts, student engagement and access to technology.
References
Cell phones in the classroom. (2006). Association for Career & Technical Education,
November/December, 8-9.
Communicator. (2005). Cell phones and PDA’s hit K-6. National Association of
Elementary School Principals, 28, 52-53.
Freedman, T. (2006). Class, open your phones – mobile phones have the potential to be must-have educational tools. Technology & Learning, 27(2), 1-2).
Kharif, O. (2008). Cell phones make headway in education. BusinessWeek Online, 1-3.
Lenhart, A. (2009). Teens and social media: An overview. New York Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, 1-21.
Thompson, P. (2007, September 13). Cell phones in school: a necessity or a nuisance? The New York Amsterdam News, pp. 6A.
Thurnau, A. (2009). Leadership + mobile technologies = educational benefits. District Administration, 45(9), 28.
History
Twenty or even ten years ago, cell phone usage in the classroom would not have even been a topic of debate or consideration. Computers were the new design in technology and were not even predominately used in classrooms. Over the last twenty years, it has become almost necessary for students to have access to a computer to complete assignments and engage in their learning from class. This trend continued to progress with the invention and adoption of the internet in schools. Students today are more likely to get their research and foundational information from a computer and the internet than from a library. However, computers themselves are becoming less and less popular among school-aged students as cell phones become more complicated in their technological capacities. Cell phones today can do as much and even more, in some cases, than the home or school computer can. More importantly, cell phones are more popular among school-aged students than computers. According to a 2008 study by O. Khariff of BusinessWeek Online, 71% of teenagers in America own a cell phone while only 59% own a computer (p. 1). This information was further verified in a survey by A. Lenhart (2009) which stated that 71% of teens ages 12-17 own a cell phone (p. 6). Cell phones are also becoming more prevalent in elementary and middle schools. According to a 2005 study by The Communicator, “over 200,000 students aged 5 to 9 carry cell phones while over seven million aged 10 to 14 have a cell phone” (p. 52). Why then would teacher be reluctant to use cell phones in their classroom when research alone shows that students are more likely to have a cell phone than a computer? Students can use the cell phones they have to complete research and find answers to questions they have about an assignment.
Of added importance to teachers and school officials is the fact that many parents also own cell phones. In a survey by A. Lenhart (2009), 88% of parents were found to own cell phones (p. 18). School administrators know that parents play a crucial role in their child’s education. However, with many parents, it is difficult to make contacts with the schools. Cell phones can help more parents get connected to their child’s school. Updates about the student can be sent to the parents’ cell phone. Additionally, cell phones can be used as another way of keeping contact with the parents. Teachers can send mass text messages letting parents know about upcoming deadlines or assignments. Cell phones could greatly improve the contact teachers and school administrators have with parents.
In addition to cell phones becoming more common with students than computers, cell phones are gaining encouragement in schools. While it is true that many schools are banning cell phone use during the school day, others are encouraging or even requiring students to use their phones during school. According to A.F. Thurnau (2009), U.S. Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, has even stated that he believes, “that kindergarten through grade 12 education needs to integrate cell phones into its classrooms,” (p. 28). As mentioned before, twenty or so years ago, this would not have even crossed the consciousness of many people. However, as technology continues to progress, the educational system should begin considering implementing new technologies as well. These technologies can be used to create fun, engaging and more interactive learning environments while teaching students how to use these fundamental tools. Many years ago, students did not need to know how to use a cell phone, computer, printer or the internet to get a good job upon completing high school or college. Today, these skills are a must. If the education system truly wants to graduate successful and capable students, these technologies should be mandatory in the classroom. Schools can begin by implementing and using cell phones more frequently during lessons.
Current Research
Cell phones have been tolerated, for the most part, in schools as long as they are out of sight and turned off for the duration of the school day. Some schools even go as far as punishing students for using them in school. However, a new wave of teachers is coming into education. A wave of teacher who have ideas on how these obnoxious tools can be used to help learning. According to a recent article by T. Freedman (2006), “almost all cell phones now have note-taking and calendar features, so there is no excuse for students forgetting their homework assignments,” (p. 1). He goes on to mention that cell phones also have calculators and SMS features that can be used in math classes and to contact teachers and parents. The King Edward VII School in England uses cell phones to address the topic of truancy. The school uses the text messaging system of cell phones to send parents a text when their student is absent. The system keeps sending the message until parents respond (p. 1). Features like these are in their infancy, but as cell phone technology improves, the capabilities of cell phones for education will improve as well.
Additionally, a 2006 report by the Association for Career and Technical Education, cited that “for a school with a limited number of digital cameras and limited Internet access in classrooms, cell phones can help fill in the gaps, serving almost as mobile computers,” (p. 3). Schools like this one exist all over the United States and pose real problems for local communities trying to give their students the best education possible. If there are too few computers or unreliable Internet access, the students will not have the same educational opportunities as students going to richer districts. However, if the students come to class with a cell phone, that cell phone can be used to do many of the same tasks that the computer or Internet was doing, only faster and with less hassle. Schools will be providing students with a better and more complete education, while teaching them how to use modern technology that will be necessary for them to use in the workforce, and the school will save money. Cell phones seem to be the answer to many schools’ budget problems.
In a 2007 newspaper article about the banning of cell phones in New York City schools, P. Thompson states, “Teachers have argued that cell phones only distract the class, making it difficult for them to teach. Some students agree,” (p. 3). While some teachers, and even some students, argue that cell phones are a major distraction in the classroom, there is clear evidence to prove otherwise. Many of these teachers and students are trying to fight the progression of cell phones. It is proven that teachers who try to combat and fight cell phones have more difficulty with them. However, teachers who embrace that the majority of their students have cell phones and will want to use them, incorporate cell phones into the instruction. These teachers do not find cell phones distracting, but find them engaging to students.
Conclusion
According to a 2006 report by the Association for Career and Technical Education, “cell phones are not going away anytime soon, and when they do, it will be because they have been replaced by some new technology with its own benefits and drawbacks,” (p. 3). This statement sums up the fact that teachers, administrators and school officials should promote cell phone usage in schools. Instead of trying to fight the overwhelming number of students that own cell phones, these school officials should be teaching students how to properly use their cell phones while implementing them into instruction to make lessons more engaging and meaningful for all students. Cell phones pose solutions to budget cuts, student engagement and access to technology.
References
Cell phones in the classroom. (2006). Association for Career & Technical Education,
November/December, 8-9.
Communicator. (2005). Cell phones and PDA’s hit K-6. National Association of
Elementary School Principals, 28, 52-53.
Freedman, T. (2006). Class, open your phones – mobile phones have the potential to be must-have educational tools. Technology & Learning, 27(2), 1-2).
Kharif, O. (2008). Cell phones make headway in education. BusinessWeek Online, 1-3.
Lenhart, A. (2009). Teens and social media: An overview. New York Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, 1-21.
Thompson, P. (2007, September 13). Cell phones in school: a necessity or a nuisance? The New York Amsterdam News, pp. 6A.
Thurnau, A. (2009). Leadership + mobile technologies = educational benefits. District Administration, 45(9), 28.
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